Europe

E

Energy

Europe consumes great quantities of energy. The leading energy sources are coal, lignite, petroleum, natural gas, nuclear power, and hydroelectric power. Norway, Sweden, France, Switzerland, Austria, Italy, and Spain all have major hydroelectric installations, which contribute large portions of the annual output of electricity. Nuclear power is important in France; Great Britain; Germany; Belgium; Lithuania, Ukraine, and other former Soviet republics; Sweden; Switzerland; Finland; and Bulgaria. The Republic of Ireland is highly unusual in that peat is a major fuel source for household use, and is also used for generating electricity.

F

Transport

Europe has highly developed transport systems, which are densest in the central part of the continent. Scandinavia, the former European USSR, and southern Europe have fewer transport facilities. Large numbers of private cars are owned in Europe, and much freight is transported by lorry. Rail networks are well maintained in most European countries and are important carriers of passengers as well as freight. Water transport plays a major role in the European economy. Several countries, such as Greece, Great Britain, Italy, France, Norway, and Russia, maintain large fleets of merchant ships. Rotterdam, in the Netherlands, is one of the world's busiest seaports. Other major ports include Antwerp, Belgium; Marseille, France; Hamburg; London; Genoa, Italy; Gdańsk, Poland; Bilbao, Spain; and Göteborg, Sweden. Much freight is carried on inland waterways; European rivers with substantial traffic include the Rhine, Scheldt (Escaut), Seine, Elbe, Danube, Volga, and Dnepr. In addition, Europe has a number of important canals. Almost all European countries maintain national airlines, and several, such as Air France, British Airways, Swissair, Lufthansa (Germany), and KLM (Netherlands) are major worldwide carriers. Most transport systems in European countries are government controlled. Since World War II a large number of pipelines have been built in Europe to transport petroleum and natural gas.

G

International Trade

Almost all European countries conduct substantial international trade. Much of the trade is intracontinental, especially among members of the European Union, but Europeans also engage in large-scale trade with countries of other continents. Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, and the Netherlands are among the world's greatest trading nations. A large portion of European intercontinental trade involves the exporting of manufactured goods and the importing of raw materials.

V

History

From prehistoric to modern times, Europe has been occupied by numerous peoples and nations. The following summary will emphasize only those events, developments, trends, and individuals that have been responsible for decisive transitions or transformations in Europe through the ages. To a considerable extent, the history sections of the articles on European countries contain more detailed data on the genesis, growth, and present state of continental civilization. These sections also refer the reader to a wide range of articles dealing with broader aspects of European history. Moreover, a number of articles contain references to other related entries on continental affairs. A review of all pertinent material may be a prerequisite to an adequate understanding of Europe at any given time.

A

Prehistoric and Ancient Times

Modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) first appeared in Europe during the late Palaeolithic era (Old Stone Age). Hunters and gatherers, they left behind notable examples of art, dating from 25,000 to 10,000 years ago, that have been found in more than 200 caves, mostly in Spain and France (see Cave Dwellers). Some 10,000 years ago, at the end of the Pleistocene epoch—the most recent of the Ice Ages—the climate began to improve and gradually approached that of the present. In time, Neolithic (New Stone Age) people developed agricultural economies that replaced hunting. During the 6th millennium bc farming spread over most of western Europe. Some of these Neolithic cultures, beginning about 5000 bc, erected huge stone monuments (megaliths) either as burial structures or as memorials of notable events. Early Neolithic development was especially intense in the Danube and Balkan areas, in the so-called Starčevo (near Belgrade in present-day Serbia) and Danubian cultures. In the southern Balkans the Sesklo culture (in Thessaly) had developed complex proto-urban forms by 5000 bc. This in turn led to the Dimini culture (also in Thessaly), which was characterized by fortified villages. Excavations in the Balkans have shown that copper was in use in that area about 4000 bc, during the Vinča culture (c. 4500-3000 bc). By this time, trade, especially in amber from the Baltic, was becoming more and more important. In central Europe (Bohemia) large deposits of copper and tin led to a bronze technology during the 3rd millennium bc. Typical royal or aristocratic tombs of this period were covered by barrows or tumuli, but by the late 2nd millennium bc a change occurred; cremation then became common, and burial by urn (in urnfields) became the established custom.