Romanesque Art and Architecture

I

Introduction

Romanesque Art and Architecture, a predominantly architectural style that flourished in western Europe from about ad 1000 until the rise of the Gothic style, in most regions by the latter half of the 12th century, in certain regions somewhat later. The term “Romanesque” is also applied to sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts of that period.

II

Pre-Romanesque Styles

Invaders from northern Europe known to the Romans as barbarians (on account of the apparently babbling manner in which they spoke) settled within most parts of the Western Roman Empire during its dissolution (ad 193-476). After the fall of Rome in 476, there evolved in the developing prefeudal societies a group of artistic and architectural styles that are collectively known as the “barbarian style”. These styles, characterized by the use of animal forms and complex decorative patterns, differ according to region; that of Ireland is known as Celtic; that of England, Saxon; that of France, Merovingian; and that of Spain, Visigothic. In Scandinavia, Christianity was adopted late, in the 10th and 11th centuries. Earlier pagan temples were built of wood, and these served as models for the first so-called stave churches of Norway. With the passage of time, all these local art forms developed distinct regional features and gradually abandoned the Classical style that Rome had imposed on the countries constituting the Roman Empire.

Byzantine art and architecture and late Roman art and architecture exerted a strong influence on the artistic style of the Franks, a group of Germanic tribes who, under Charlemagne, dominated Europe after the demise of the Roman Empire. Frankish art and architecture of the 8th and 9th centuries is called Carolingian, after “Carolus”, the Latin name for “Charlemagne”. Charlemagne sought to bestow on his domains the scale and prestige of the former Roman Empire, and the term “Carolingian Renaissance” designates the revival that took place in the arts and classical studies under his patronage. The Carolingian Renaissance left two significant legacies to future ages. One was the vast number of manuscripts copied by Benedictine monks. In these manuscripts are preserved virtually all works of ancient Latin and Early Christian culture that survived the “barbarian” invasions; nearly all modern editions of these classical works are still based on these early manuscripts.

The second legacy was a major reform of the late Merovingian script, by then debased and illegible, which accompanied the large production of manuscripts. This new form of writing, known as Caroline minuscule, in which the letters were neatly formed and the words clearly separated from one another, provided the basis for the lower case letters of the Latin, or Roman, alphabet. After Charlemagne's death, his empire was divided, and the imperial title eventually passed to the ruler of the East Franks (Germans). The style developed by the East Franks during the 9th and 10th centuries, especially in the Rhineland, is termed Ottonian after Charlemagne's descendant, Otto I.

During the pre-Romanesque and Romanesque periods, the Christian Church, the only transnational bond uniting the states of western Europe, continued the diffusion of Roman culture from its centre in Rome. Roman traditions remained strong in regions outside Italy—for example, in the Moselle River valley, which had been Romanized long before the fall of the empire, and in Provence, in southern France. By the end of the pre-Romanesque period, Roman stylistic elements had fused with elements emanating from Byzantium; from the Middle East, especially Syria, by way of Byzantium; and from the Germans, Celts, and other northern tribes. These influences, in various combinations, created in western Europe a multiplicity of local styles that have acquired the generic name Romanesque, meaning “in the manner of the Roman”. Because pre-Romanesque and Romanesque art survives chiefly in the form of architecture, the various styles that flourished during these periods are often defined in terms of architectural traditions.

III

Architecture

The disintegration of Roman culture and economy, led in turn to a collapse of the framework in which skilled architects and trained artisans could flourish. Without their skills, attempts at large-scale building, which were usually restricted to churches, resulted in structures that were often crude and of relatively modest proportions. The exception to this type of architecture, which from the end of the 5th to the 8th century was generally simple, was that in the city of Ravenna, Italy, then under Byzantine rule. Buildings there are often composed of, or decorated with, elements removed from Roman structures.

In many regions the pre-Romanesque style was a continuation of Early Christian art and architecture; such, for example, were the churches of Rome, built on the plan of the basilica.

Circular or polygonal domed churches inspired by Byzantine architecture were also built during the pre-Romanesque period; later they were built in the region of Aquitaine in south-western France and in Scandinavia. The best-known and most elaborate examples of this type are San Vitale (526-548) in Ravenna, built for the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, and the octagonal palace chapel built between 792 and 805 by Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle (now Aachen, Germany) and directly inspired by San Vitale. One of the creations of Carolingian architects was the westwork, a multi-storey entrance façade flanked by bell towers, attached to Christian basilicas. Westworks were prototypes of the great Romanesque and Gothic cathedral façades.

Important buildings were also constructed by the monastic orders. Monasticism, a religious and social manifestation characteristic of the period, required vast building complexes comprising chapels, cloisters, libraries, workshops, kitchens, refectories, and dormitories for the monks. New building skills were developed, particularly by the monks of the Benedictine and Cistercian orders. Elaborate pre-Romanesque monastic establishments were built at St Gall, Switzerland, on the island of Reichenau on the German side of Lake Constance (Bodensee), and at Monte Cassino, Italy, by Benedictine monks.

An outstanding achievement of Romanesque architecture was the development of stone-vaulted buildings. A major reason for the development of stone vaulting was the need to find an alternative to the highly flammable wooden roofs of pre-Romanesque structures. Attempts to solve new structural problems resulting from the use of vaults, especially barrel vaults, were endlessly varied. The dome, round and pointed vaults, and plain and ribbed groined vaulting were used. However, a masonry structure in which the thrusts, or pressures, of the vaults are perfectly contained by isolated piers and buttresses was not achieved until the Gothic period.

Stone vaulting, being much heavier than wooden roofing, needed to be supported by heavy walls and sturdy columns. In the mature Romanesque style, especially that which developed in France, the use of massive walls and piers as supports for the heavy stone vaults resulted in a typical building plan in which the entire structure was treated as a complex composed of smaller interlinked units. These units, called bays, are the square or rectangular spaces enclosed by groin vaults; in late Romanesque architecture, these bays tended to be treated as basic building units, and separate rectangular bays became a characteristic and distinguishing feature of the Romanesque style. The massiveness of stone structures is another major characteristic of Romanesque architecture. The nave in Romanesque churches was usually made higher and narrower than in earlier structures in order to accommodate windows, called clerestory windows, in the sidewalls below the vault. Doors and windows were usually framed by round arches, or, sometimes, by slightly pointed arches. These openings were generally small and were decorated with mouldings, carvings, and sculptures that became increasingly rich and varied as the Romanesque period drew to a close.

A

Italy

A great diversity of styles developed in the Italian provinces during the Romanesque period. An Italian style showing notable structural ingenuity developed in Lombardy. It is characterized by the frequent use of the groined vault, and the buildings are sombrely impressive because of their heavy proportions and details that accompany the vaulting. Among the earliest examples of the style are the churches of Sant'Ambrogio, in Milan, and San Michele, in Pavia (both early 12th century). Other examples include the cathedrals and baptisteries of Parma, Cremona, Piacenza, Ferrara, and Modena, all also dating from the 12th century.

Another extremely important Italian Romanesque style was that of central Italy. It shows few structural innovations, and typically continues the tradition of the Early Christian basilica by employing classical decorative elements. In the provinces around Rome the style is best represented by the medieval basilicas in Rome, such as the church of San Clemente (12th century).

Churches in Tuscany are less monumental and generally have a livelier scheme of decoration than churches in Rome, but both make free use of classical motifs, such as Corinthian capitals, acanthus borders, and egg-and-dart moulding. The use of coloured marble in geometric patterns is characteristic, particularly in the form of alternating bands of black and white. The façade of the church of San Miniato al Monte (begun in 1013) in Florence, for example, is covered in black, green, and white marble. Open arcades, colonnades, and galleries are also important features of the interiors and exteriors of buildings, and façades are often decorated with sculptures in relief. Outstanding examples of central Italian Romanesque architecture are of a group of buildings in Pisa that includes the cathedral, begun in 1063; the baptistery, begun in 1153; and the Campanile (the famous Leaning Tower), a free-standing bell tower, begun in 1173. In this group, the predominance of Classical precedents is clearly evident in the use throughout of capitals derived from Roman prototypes.

In southern Italy, particularly the region of Apulia, and in Sicily, a rich style combining Byzantine, Roman, Arabic, Lombard, and Norman elements developed. Lavish use of mosaic decorations and interlaced pointed-arch arcades is characteristic. The best-known examples of southern Italian Romanesque style include the cathedrals of Monreale and of Cefalù, and the Cappella Palatina (Palace Chapel) in Palermo, all dating from the 12th century.