Engineering

I

Introduction

Engineering, term applied to the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences, gained by study, experience, and practice, is applied to the efficient use of the materials and forces of nature. The term “engineer” properly denotes a person who has received professional training in pure and applied science; however, there are also individuals such as technicians, inspectors, and drafters, who apply scientific and engineering skills to technical problems.

Before the middle of the 18th century, large-scale construction work was usually placed in the hands of military engineers. Military engineering involved such work as the preparation of topographical maps, the location, design, and construction of roads and bridges; and the building of forts and docks. In the 18th century, however, the term “civil engineering” came into use to describe engineering work that was performed by civilians for non-military purposes. With the increasing use of machinery in the 19th century following the Industrial Revolution, mechanical engineering was recognized as a separate branch of engineering, and later mining engineering was similarly recognized.

The technical advances of the 19th century greatly broadened the field of engineering and introduced a large number of engineering specialities, and the rapidly changing demands of the socio-economic environment in the 20th century have widened the scope even further.

II

Modern Engineering Trends

Scientific methods of engineering are applied in several fields not connected directly to manufacture and construction. Modern engineering is characterized by the broad application of systems engineering principles. The systems approach is a methodology of decision-making in design, operation, or construction that adopts (1) the formal process included in what is known as the scientific method; (2) an interdisciplinary, or team, approach, using specialists from not only the various engineering disciplines, but also from legal, social, aesthetic, and behavioural fields; (3) a formal sequence of procedure employing the principles of operations research.

For example, transport engineering in its broadest sense includes not only design of the transport system and building of its lines and rolling stock, but also determination of the traffic requirements of the route followed. It is also concerned with setting up efficient and safe schedules, and the interaction of the system with the community and the environment. Engineers in industry work not only with machines but also with the people using them, to determine, for example, how machines can be operated most efficiently and safely by workers. A small change in the location of the controls of a machine or of its position with relation to other machines or equipment, or a change in the muscular movements of the operator, often results in greatly increased production. This type of engineering work is called time-study engineering.

A related field of engineering, human-factors engineering, also known as ergonomics, received wide attention in the late 1970s and 1980s when the safety of nuclear reactors was questioned following serious accidents that were caused by operator errors, design failures, and malfunctioning equipment. Human-factors engineering seeks to establish criteria for the efficient, human-centred design of, among other things, the large, complicated control panels that monitor and govern nuclear reactor operations.

Among various recent trends in the engineering profession, licensing and computerization are the most widespread. Today, many engineers, like doctors and lawyers, are licensed by the state. Approvals by professionally licensed engineers are required for construction of public and commercial structures, especially installations where public and worker safety is a consideration. In Britain the Royal Academy of Engineering, founded in 1976, encourages new research, and is concerned with the relationship of engineering to society.

III

Fields of Engineering

The main branches of engineering are discussed in full elsewhere under Aerospace Engineering; Chemical Engineering; Civil Engineering; Electrical and Electronic Engineering; Mechanical Engineering; Military Engineering; Nuclear Engineering; and Sanitary Engineering. For information on safety, see Engineering, Safety in. The engineer who works in any of these fields usually requires a basic knowledge of the other engineering fields, because most engineering problems are complex and interrelated. For example, a chemical engineer designing a plant for the electrolytic refining of metal ores must deal with the design of structures, machinery, and electrical devices, as well as with purely chemical problems.

Besides the principal branches described in brief below, engineering includes many more specialities than can be described here, such as acoustical engineering, architectural engineering (see Architecture: Construction), automotive engineering, ceramic engineering, transport engineering, and textile engineering.

A

Aeronautical and Aerospace Engineering

Aeronautics deals with the whole field of design, manufacture, maintenance, testing, and use of aircraft for both civilian and military purposes. It involves the knowledge of aerodynamics, structural design, propulsion engines, navigation, communication, and other related areas. See Aviation; Military Aircraft.

Aerospace engineering is closely allied to aeronautics, but is concerned with the flight of vehicles in space, beyond the Earth’s atmosphere, and includes the study and development of rocket engines, artificial satellites, and vehicles for space exploration.