Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55-c. 135), Greek philosopher, whose philosophy of Stoicism emphasized freedom, morality, and humanity. Epictetus was probably born at Hierapolis, Phrygia (now in Turkey). Although a slave, as a youth he had studied the ideals of Stoicism, and, after being granted his freedom, went on to teach philosophy in Rome until ad 90. In that year the Roman Emperor Domitian, fearful of the dangers engendered by the teachings of the Stoics, exiled Epictetus and several other philosophers. Epictetus settled at Nicopolis, in southern Epirus, where he died.

Epictetus's doctrines have been preserved in two works compiled by his pupil, the Greek historian and philosopher Arrian: the Encheiridion (Handbook), the whole of which survives today, and Discourses of Epictetus, of which four of eight books still exist. According to these works, Epictetus was chiefly concerned with the problem of morality—that is, of defining good. He asserted that humans are basically limited and irrational beings, but that the universe, ruled by God through pure reason, is perfect. Because human beings can neither know nor control their destiny, they must cease striving for the attainment of worldly ends and instead calmly accept the fact of their own powerlessness before fate. As a corollary of this doctrine, Epictetus held that human beings must, because of their own weaknesses, be tolerant of the faults of others.