Modern Art and Architecture

Whereas modern architecture before World War I was characterized by many currents of thought and practice, in the period between the two world wars one style in particular stood out. This is generally known as “International Modern” or the “International Style” and it did indeed become current among progressive architects in many parts of the Western world. It is characterized by clarity of design, with oblong shapes predominating, clean lines, and a virtual absence of ornament; buildings were often painted white and windows were typically arranged in horizontal bands. Several of the most illustrious architects of the 20th century worked in (or were strongly influenced by) this style, among them Alvar Aalto (who did much to create Scandinavia’s high reputation in modern architecture and design), Walter Gropius (the first director of the Bauhaus, the German art school that played a central role in spreading modernist ideas), Le Corbusier, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. Even such a supreme individualist as Frank Lloyd Wright was affected by the style in certain aspects of his work.

The International Modern style continued to flourish after World War II, but in the 1950s its dominance was challenged by a new style that was dubbed Brutalism. In contrast to the sleekness of International Modern, Brutalist buildings typically made much use of raw concrete (béton brut in French, hence the name), producing a rough and expressive effect. Le Corbusier’s Unité d’Habitation housing complex in Marseilles (1948-1954) is regarded as the first major work of Brutalism. He created other works in the style and his enormous prestige ensured its wide influence. Notable exponents include Louis Kahn in the United States, Denys Lasdun in Britain, and Kenzō Tange in Japan.

Since the 1960s several other major strands have appeared in avant-garde architecture, the most pervasive probably being Postmodernism. The term indicates a reaction against the austerity of the International Modern style in favour of a brasher and more eclectic approach: one of the leading advocates of Postmodernism, the American architect Robert Venturi, has said that he prefers “messy vitality” to “obvious unity”. Postmodernist buildings typically use elements of colour and decoration in a way that is foreign to the purist ideals of the International Modern style, and they often introduce references to historic or vernacular architecture, sometimes in a jokey spirit. A famous example is the headquarters of the AT&T telephone company in New York (1978-1984), a skyscraper topped by a giant classical pediment. The designer of the building, Philip Johnson, had earlier been one of the leading exponents of the International Modern style.

An entirely different approach to Postmodernism is represented by the style or idiom known as High-Tech, in which expressive use is made of the constructional and operational aspects of a building, with features such as supporting members or heating pipes fully exposed to view. The first great landmark of High-Tech architecture was the Pompidou Centre in Paris (1971-1977), designed by the Italian architect Renzo Piano and the Italian-born British architect Richard Rogers. The High-Tech idiom has continued to be associated particularly with British architects and is the only modern architectural style in which Britain has led the world. Its most famous exponent is probably Norman Foster, whose major buildings include the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank in Hong Kong (1979-1986) and Stansted Airport Terminal, Essex (1989-1991).

Another recent trend in architecture has been given the name Deconstructivism, a term used to characterize buildings in which elements such as fractured forms or warped planes undermine conventional notions of stability and harmony. The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain (1991-1997), by the American architect Frank Gehry, is regarded by some critics as exemplifying this trend. With its undulating titanium-clad walls, it is certainly one of the most spectacular and original buildings of its time.