Roman Mythology

I

Introduction

Roman Mythology, body of religious and historical beliefs, and attendant rituals and other observances, held or practised by the ancient Romans from the legendary foundation of Rome in the 8th century bc (see Kings of Rome) until Christianity finally supplanted the native religions of the Roman Empire in the 4th century ad. The original religion of the early Romans was so modified by the addition of numerous and conflicting beliefs in later times, and by the assimilation of a vast amount of Greek mythology, that it cannot be reconstructed precisely. Because extensive changes in Roman religion had already taken place before the Roman literary tradition began (see Latin Literature), its origins were in most cases unknown to early Roman writers on religion, such as Marcus Terentius Varro, a scholar of the 1st century bc. Other Classical writers, such as the poet Ovid in his Fasti (Calendar), were strongly influenced by Alexandrian models, and in their works they frequently incorporated Greek beliefs to fill gaps in the Roman tradition.

II

Gods of the Roman People

Roman mythology clearly distinguishes two classes of gods, the indigetes and the novensides, or novensiles. The indigetes were the original gods of the Roman state, and their names and nature are indicated by the titles of the earliest priests and by the fixed festivals of the calendar; 30 such gods were honoured with special festivals. The novensides were later divinities whose cults were introduced in the historical period. Early Roman divinities included, in addition to the indigetes, a host of so-called specialist gods whose names were invoked when various activities, such as harvesting, were carried out. Fragments of old ritual accompanying such acts as ploughing or sowing reveal that at every stage of the operation a separate deity was invoked, the name of each deity being regularly derived from the verb for that activity. Such divinities may be grouped under the general term of attendant, or auxiliary, gods, who were invoked along with the greater deities. Early Roman cult was not so much polytheism as polydemonism: the worshippers’ concepts of the invoked beings consisted of little more than their names and functions, and the being’s numen, or power, manifested itself in highly specialized ways.

The character of the indigetes and their festivals show that the early Romans were not only members of an agricultural community but were also fond of fighting and much engaged in war. The gods represented distinctly the practical needs of daily life, as felt by the Roman community to which they belonged. They were scrupulously accorded the rites and offerings considered proper. Thus, Janus and Vesta guarded the door and hearth, the Lares protected the field and house, Pales the pasture, Saturn the sowing, Ceres the growth of the grain, Pomona the fruit, and Consus and Ops the harvest. Even the majestic Jupiter, the ruler of the gods, was honoured for the aid his rains might give to farmland and vineyards. In his more encompassing character he was considered, through his weapon of lightning, the director of human activity and, by his widespread domain, the protector of the Romans in their military activities beyond the borders of their own community. Prominent in early times were the gods Mars and Quirinus, who were often identified with each other. Mars was a god of young men and their activities, especially war; he was honoured in March and October. Quirinus is thought by modern scholars to have been the patron of the armed community in time of peace.

At the head of the earliest pantheon was the triad Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus (whose three priests, or flamens, were of the highest order), and Janus and Vesta. These gods in early times had little individuality, and their personal histories lacked marriages and genealogies. Unlike the gods of the Greeks, they were not considered to function in the manner of mortals, and thus few accounts of their activities exist. This older worship was associated with Numa Pompilius, the second legendary king of Rome, who was believed to have had as his consort and adviser the Roman goddess of fountains and childbirth, Egeria. New elements were added at a relatively early date, however. To the royal house of the Tarquins was ascribed by legend the establishment of the great Capitoline triad (so called because they were worshipped on the Capitoline Hill), Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, which assumed the supreme place in Roman religion. The concept of a triad of deities can be traced to the religion of the Etruscans, whose culture flourished in central Italy before the rise of Rome. Other additions were the worship of Diana on the Aventine Hill and the introduction of the Sibylline Books, prophecies of world history, which, according to legend, were purchased by Tarquin the Proud in the late 6th century bc from the Cumaean Sibyl, the priestess of Apollo at Cumae.

III

Inclusion of Other Deities

The absorption of neighbouring native gods took place as the Roman state conquered the surrounding territory. The Romans commonly granted the local gods of the conquered territory the same honours as the earlier gods who had been regarded as peculiar to the Roman state. This process has been called interpretatio Romana, or the Roman understanding. In many instances the newly acquired deities were formally invited to take up their abode in new sanctuaries at Rome. Moreover, the growth of the city attracted foreigners, who were allowed to continue the worship of their own gods. In addition to Castor and Pollux, the conquered settlements in Italy (which included Greek colonies as well as the towns of the Etruscans and other indigenous people) seem to have contributed to the Roman pantheon Diana, Minerva, Hercules, Venus, and other deities of lesser rank, some of whom were Italian divinities, others originally derived from Greece. The important Roman deities were eventually identified with the more anthropomorphic Greek gods and goddesses, whose attributes and myths were also taken over. Thus Jupiter was identified with Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athena, and so on.

IV

Religious Festivals

The Roman religious calendar reflected Rome’s hospitality to the cults and deities of conquered territories. Originally, Roman religious festivals were few in number. Some of the oldest survived to the very end of the pagan empire, preserving the memory of the fertility and propitiatory rites of a primitive agricultural people. New festivals were introduced, however, to mark the naturalization of new gods. So many festivals were adopted eventually that the work days on the calendar were outnumbered by feast days. Among the more important of the Roman religious festivals were the Saturnalia, the Lupercalia, the Equiria, and the Secular Games.

Under the empire, the Saturnalia was celebrated for seven days, from December 17 to 23, during the period in which the winter solstice occurs. All business was suspended, slaves were given temporary freedom, gifts were exchanged, and merriment prevailed. The Lupercalia was an ancient festival originally honouring Lupercus, a pastoral god of the Italians. The festival was celebrated on February 15 at the cave of the Lupercal on the Palatine Hill, where the legendary founders of Rome, the twins Romulus and Remus, were supposed to have been nursed by a wolf. Among the Roman legends connected with them is that of Faustulus, a shepherd who was supposed to have discovered the twins in the wolf’s den and to have taken them to his home, in which they were brought up by his wife, Acca Larentia.

The Equiria, a festival in honour of Mars, was celebrated on February 27 and March 14, traditionally the time of year when new military campaigns were prepared. Horse races in the Campus Martius notably marked the celebration.

The Secular Games, which included both athletic spectacles and sacrifices, were held at irregular intervals, traditionally once only in about every century, to mark the beginning of a new saeculum, or era. The tradition, however, was often neglected.