Xenophon

Xenophon (c. 430-c. 355 bc), Greek historian, soldier, and essayist, whose works have contributed greatly to knowledge of Greece and Persia in the 4th century bc.

He was born in Athens and as a youth was a pupil of Socrates. In 401 bc Xenophon joined an army of Greek mercenaries in the service of Cyrus the Younger, Prince of Persia, and took part in a campaign against Cyrus's brother, King Artaxerxes II. After the death of Cyrus at the Battle of Cunaxa (401 bc), the commanding officers of the Greek mercenaries were treacherously murdered by the Persian satrap (governor) Tissaphernes. Xenophon was chosen by the remaining force of 10,000 men, as one of their commanders. He assumed responsibility for leading them back across Asia Minor to safety in the ancient Greek colony of Trapezus (now Trabzon, Turkey) on the Black Sea, a march of 2,414 km (1,500 mi) lasting five months. Their survival has been attributed largely to Xenophon's resourcefulness and foresight. In his most celebrated book, the Anabasis, he describes the retreat through unknown territory against the obstacles of terrain and weather, fierce enemies, and lack of supplies.

From Trapezus, Xenophon and his force of “Ten Thousand” moved on to Chrysopolis (now Üsküdar, Turkey). Shortly after their arrival they entered the service of the Spartans in their campaigns against the Persian satraps of Asia Minor. The ransom Xenophon collected from a wealthy Persian prisoner in this campaign enabled him to live in comfort for the rest of his life. From these foreign adventures he returned to Greece in 394 bc as a member of the staff of Agesilaus II, King of Sparta. In that capacity he was present at the Battle of Coronea (394 bc) at which the Spartans defeated the Athenians and their Theban allies. The Athenians retaliated by condemning him as a traitor and sentencing him to banishment. The Spartan government presented him with an estate at Scillus, in Elis, where he lived until 371 bc when Sparta's military might was crushed by the Thebans at Leuctra, and Xenophon was driven from his home. Although Athens lifted the ban of exile against him, he apparently spent the rest of his life in Corinth.

Apart from the Anabasis, Xenophon wrote a number of other works, most notably the Hellenica, a historical work which continues on from where Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War left off in 411 to 363 bc; Cyropaedia, an idealized biography of Cyrus the Great; and Memorabilia, his recollections of Socrates and Socratic conversations. He also wrote an encomium of Agesilaus; a group of political and economic treatises; a series of essays on horsemanship, hunting, and cavalry warfare; and several additional Socratic dialogues.

As soldier, orator, philosopher, essayist, and historian, Xenophon was the prototype of the talented Athenian. He found the austere Spartan way of life more congenial than the democratic spirit of his native Athens, however. The value of his historical writings is impaired by a strong Spartan bias. His Socratic writings reveal a mind that did not fully comprehend the philosophy of his teacher, and his own ideas are generally derivative and moralistic. Sincerity and common sense are his strongest characteristics. His style is simple, elegant, and uncomplicated, and he is considered a master of clear exposition.