Japan

C

Climate

The Japanese islands extend through approximately 17° of latitude, and Japan’s climatic conditions vary widely. Average mean temperatures range from about 5° C (41° F) in Nemuro (Hokkaido) to about 16° C (61° F) on Okinawa. Short summers and severe long winters characterize Hokkaido and the northern part of Honshu. The severity of the winters is caused in great part by the north-western winds blowing from Siberia and the cold Okhotsk (or Oyashio) Current, which flows south into the Sea of Japan. To the south and east of this region the winters are considerably moderated by the influence of the warm Kuroshio (or Japan) Current. In Shikoku, Kyushu, and southern Honshu the summers are hot and humid, almost subtropical, and the winters are mild with comparatively little snow. Japan lies in the path of the south-eastern monsoons, which add considerably to the oppressive humidity of the summers. Yearly precipitation ranges from about 1,015 mm (40 in) on Hokkaido to 3,810 mm (150 in) in the mountains of central Honshu. From June to October tropical cyclones, also called typhoons, occur: they can cause great damage, especially to shipping.

D

Natural Resources

The most important natural resources of Japan are primarily agricultural. Although arable land is limited, Japan has some of the highest crop yields per land area sown in the world, and the country produces about 71 per cent of its food. Japan’s large hydroelectric power potential has been extensively developed, but mineral resources are limited. The country is obliged to import most of its mineral requirements. Geothermal power is a potentially great, as yet unexploited, resource.

E

Plants and Animals

The great variety and luxuriance of Japanese plant life is mainly caused by the heat and moisture of Japanese summers, as well as Japan’s proximity to the Eurasian mainland. More than 17,000 species of flowering and non-flowering plants are found, and many are widely cultivated. The white and red plum and the cherry bloom early and are particularly admired. The Japanese hills are colourful with azaleas in April, and the tree peony, one of the most popular cultivated flowers, blossoms at the beginning of May. The lotus blooms in August, and in November the blooming of the chrysanthemum occasions one of the most celebrated of the numerous Japanese flower festivals. Other flowers include the pimpernel, bluebell, gladiolus, and many varieties of lily. Few wild flowers are found, because the small area of arable land permits little space for uncultivated vegetation in the plains.

The predominant variety of Japanese tree is the conifer; a common species is the sugi, or Japanese cedar, which sometimes attains a height of 46 m (150 ft). Other evergreens include the larch, spruce, and many varieties of fir. In Kyushu, Shikoku, and southern Honshu subtropical trees, such as the bamboo, camphor tree, and banyan are found, and the tea plant and wax tree are cultivated. In central and northern Honshu the trees are those of the Temperate Zone, such as the beech, willow, chestnut, and many conifers. Lacquer and mulberry trees are cultivated extensively, and the cypress, yew, box, holly, and myrtle are plentiful. In Hokkaido the vegetation is subarctic and similar to that of southern Siberia. Spruce, larch, and northern fir are the most common trees; some forests contain alders, poplars, and beeches. The most common Japanese fruits are peaches, pears, and oranges.

The Japanese practise a unique kind of landscape gardening. Japanese gardens attempt to reproduce in miniature a stylization of natural landscapes. The Japanese also cultivate dwarf trees, such as the cherry and plum, which, through skilful pruning, are kept as small as 30 cm (12 in). The potted flora that are dwarfed by special methods of culture are called “bonsai”.

As compared with its luxuriant flora, Japan suffers a dearth of animal life. Yet Japanese fauna includes at least 140 species of mammals, 450 species of birds, and a wide variety of reptiles, batrachians (frogs and toads), and fish. The only primate mammal is the red-faced monkey, the Japanese macaque, found throughout Honshu. The carnivores include the red bear, black bear, and brown bear. Foxes are found throughout Japan, as are badgers. Other fur-bearing animals include the wild boar, marten, Japanese mink, otter, weasel, and several varieties of seal. Hares and rabbits are numerous, as are rodents, which include squirrels, flying squirrels, rats, and mice, although the common house mouse is not found. Many varieties of bat exist; insectivores include the Japanese mole and shrew mouse. Of the two species of deer, the more common is the small Japanese deer, which has a spotted white coat in summer and a brown coat in winter.

The sparrow, house swallow, and thrush are the commonest Japanese birds. Water birds constitute almost 25 per cent of the known species and include the crane, heron, swan, duck, cormorant, stork, and albatross. Songbirds are numerous, the bullfinch and two varieties of nightingale being the best known. Among other common birds are the robin, cuckoo, woodpecker, pheasant, and pigeon.

The coastal waters of Japan teem with fish, which are caught in enormous quantities for use as fresh food or for canning and also for fertilizer. Various seaweeds are also eaten.

F

Environmental Concerns

Japan has limited sources of traditional natural energy yet it sustains a rapidly expanding industrial sector and a large population with one of the highest standards of living in the world. To do this it has aggressively followed a nuclear energy path and currently derives around 32 per cent of its energy from nuclear power, with plans to increase this to 60 per cent by about 2030. There are 53 nuclear plants in operation (1998). Plant siting with regard to earthquake hazards, nuclear waste storage, importation of nuclear fuel, and export of spent fuel for reprocessing pose major environmental and security risks. Japan had a huge stockpile of plutonium as of the early 1990s. Other sources of energy include hydroelectric power, coal, and oil. Even with its reliance on nuclear power, Japan still produces almost 5 per cent of global greenhouse gas emissions. The government has outlined national strategies to deal with these and other issues.

Japan's economy has generated many problems familiar to other industrialized countries. Some, such as air pollution, are more severe because of the high concentration of urban areas. Sulphur dioxide concentrations have fallen significantly in response to environmental regulation, but nitrogen oxides, which contribute to acid rain and health problems, are still an issue. Water quality has improved steadily since the 1970s, but many bodies of water still fall foul of standards relating to permissible levels of organic waste substances. Increases in household waste in the 1980s were among the highest in the world, and Japan faces a severe shortage of landfill sites.

The nature conservation ethic in Japan is strong. Protected forests and special game reserves were already a long-standing tradition by the time Japan entered the modern Western-influenced era in the mid-19th century. Today forests cover about 67 per cent (1995) of the country, although most of these are commercial plantations. Despite its own substantial forests, Japan is among the world's largest importers of timber. Currently there are 28 major national parks and more than 350 lesser parks, covering more than 14 per cent of the country. An extensive series of wildlife reserves and special sanctuaries covers more than 8 per cent of the land. At least 28 marine parks have also been established. The Nature Conservation Law of 1972 requires that all natural systems be inventoried every five years, a mandate that the government has kept with the help of volunteers and non-government organizations.

Japan is among the few Asian countries to have ratified the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. By 1980 it had declared four biosphere reserves under the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere Program. Other international environmental agreements ratified include those concerning the Antarctic Treaty, biodiversity, climate change, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, nuclear test ban, ozone layer, ship pollution, and tropical timber.

III

Population

The modern Japanese are essentially a Mongoloid race and are similar in appearance to the Chinese and Koreans; the Japanese, however, are slightly smaller in stature. The Ainu, a Caucasian people now resident principally on Hokkaido, are the only significant non-Japanese native group, but they are now almost entirely intermarried with the Japanese. Japan is an industrialized urban society, and approximately 66 per cent of the population lives in metropolitan areas.