Seal

Seal, a carved die or stamp made of metal, stone, or gemstone, used to mark documents and objects with a sign of official origin or ownership; the term is also used for the mark itself and survives today in the expression “to seal an envelope”. Seals inscribed with pictorial motifs or the names of kings have been of immense help to historians both in their reconstruction of events in ancient history and in shedding light on such cultural details as dress, armour, ships, and architecture in ancient times.

Ancient seals were generally intaglios, incised with a design that left a convex impression in wax or damp clay. Seals as a form of security evolved before writing became widespread; they were used to secure the fastenings on jars, boxes, bags, and bales. In Mesopotamia, bone or stone seals in the shape of small cylinders carved with geometric designs or figures of animals appeared in about 3200 bc; their incised surfaces were rolled over damp clay to produce a repetitive frieze-like design. Mesopotamian seals were used to authenticate documents written on clay, the sender using his personal seal both on the document itself and on the outer clay case in which it was dispatched. In ancient Egypt, documents in the form of sheets of papyrus were rolled up and tied with a cord; the wax covering the knot was pressed with a seal.

With the spread of writing, the use of seals developed further, and precious metals and gemstones were used to make them. In ancient Greece and Rome, seal, or signet, rings and portrait seals, incised with the owner's likeness, were used, often in a legal context.

The use of seals in medieval Europe was very widespread not only among rulers and officials but also among minor landowners. There were royal seals, religious seals, town seals, and commercial seals. Seals were extremely important in government. In England, the Great Seal, featuring royal insignia and a seated monarch, was first used in the reign of Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) and was later accompanied by the Privy Seal. The official use of seals by heads of state was carried over to the United States in the form of the Great Seal of the United States and the seals of each state of the union.

The use of seals declined in the 19th century, as increased literacy led to the wider use of personal signatures. Until the advent of sealable envelopes, however, letters continued to be sealed with sealing wax, or shellac.

Seals in China and Japan were used chiefly to confirm a signature or sign, or to identify possessions such as boxes, books, or paintings. They were not impressed, as in the West, but were used with ink as stamps, and thus represent an early form of printing. They were usually square and read simply “The seal of” followed by the name of the owner.