Spices

I

Introduction

Spices, aromatic flavourings made from parts of plants. The term “spice” is usually applied to the hard parts, such as bark and seeds, of aromatic tropical plants, especially those native to tropical Asia and the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, of Indonesia. However, the term is very imprecise as some spices are made of soft plant tissue or come from the New World tropics and even temperate regions. To some extent the terms “spice” and (culinary) “herb“ are interchangeable. In general, spices are strong-tasting and are used dried, while herbs are milder and tend to be used fresh. With few exceptions, the spices and herbs known today were being used early in human history. The spice trade with the Orient was flourishing well before the advent of Christianity. The discovery of many spices probably pre-dates the earliest civilizations, when human beings were attracted to the aromatic effects produced by what are now called essential oils, which are found in various plant parts. Interestingly, many of the same oils that attract human beings evolved in nature as toxins or repellents against animals; the leaves of the mint plant and the bark of the cinnamon tree, for example, may have evolved as protection against grass-eating ungulates and bark-boring insects.

In addition to their long use in preserving foods and enhancing food flavour, spices and herbs played important, sometimes magical, roles in medicine. Before the advent of industrially prepared medicines, herbal remedies were commonly prescribed and were often effective. In many parts of the world this practice continues.

II

The Spice Trade

The great value put on spices is best reflected by economic developments that began before 2000 bc in the Middle East, in the form of lucrative commerce in cinnamon, cassia (senna), and black pepper. For many centuries Arab merchants controlled the overland trade routes to India, but when sea routes were discovered, Roman-controlled Alexandria, in Egypt, became a commercial centre. From the 13th to the 15th century, Venice monopolized the spice trade with the Middle East. Venice demanded such exorbitant prices, however, that Portugal and Spain looked eastward for routes to the Spice Islands around the Cape of Good Hope, and then, with the voyages of Christopher Columbus, searched westward. Although many of the early explorers set out to find gold, these expeditions gained much of their financial backing from trade in spices.

III

Modern Production

Today nearly all spices and herbs can be purchased easily, not only because of advances in commerce and shipping but also because many of the once-rare spices of the Orient have been naturalized in other parts of the world. The treasured cloves of Tidore, for example, with which the only surviving ship of Ferdinand Magellan’s fleet returned to Spain, are now cultivated in groves on the islands of Zanzibar and Madagascar. Ginger, once found only in China, is now grown in Jamaica and Nigeria. Nutmeg, native to the Moluccas, now grows in Grenada. Even chilli peppers (see Capsicum), one of the important spices discovered in the New World, are now cultivated worldwide.

Herbs such as oregano (see Marjoram) and thyme are now shipped in bales to London and New York, the two largest spice centres, for processing and distribution. Among the few spices that are not readily available are saffron, the most expensive spice, and vanilla—both of which require considerable labour to produce. Saffron, used to colour and flavour Mediterranean and Oriental dishes, comes from the hand-extracted stigmas of saffron crocuses grown in Spain, Italy, and the Middle East. Vanilla comes from the fruits of an orchid, the flowers of which must be hand-pollinated and the pods specially cured before they produce their characteristic aroma. A much less costly vanilla is now synthesized by the hydrolysis of wood.

IV

Types of Spices and Herbs

The great variety of herb and spice flavours are produced from nearly all parts of plants, from the leaves to the roots. Among those producing fragrant leaves are basil, rosemary, sage, savory, tarragon, and thyme, all of which are small annual or perennial plants. Bayleaf, or sweet laurel, used to flavour meats, sauces, and vinegars, comes from a shrub or tree.

Among the many spices derived from the ripe fruit or seeds of plants are aniseed (from anise), caraway seed, chilli peppers, coriander seed, dill seed (from dill), fennel seed, mustard, nutmeg, pepper, poppy seed, and sesame seed. Liquorice-flavoured aniseed, which comes from Pimpinella anisum, a member of the carrot family, is used whole for baking and as an essential oil in sweets and the liqueurs absinthe and anisette. Juniper berry, used to flavour gin, comes from the low evergreen shrub Juniperus communis. The strongest mustard seed comes from black mustard, Brassica nigra, which was probably the large plant mentioned in the Bible and which now grows in Israel to a height of 3.7 m (12 ft). Powdered mustard seed releases its pungent flavour when it is moistened. The flavour is preserved by lemon juice, vinegar, or wine in prepared mustard. Nutmeg is the seed of an apricot-like fruit of the tropical evergreen tree Myristica fragrans. The net-like red coat around the seed is made into mace, another spice used to flavour pickles, ketchups, and sauces. Sesame seeds were ground into flour by the Egyptians and used by the Chinese 5,000 years ago. The pearly, nut-flavoured seeds, used especially in Middle Eastern cooking, come from the annual Sesamum indicum and are scattered in the wild by the drying pod, making hand harvesting necessary.

Among the spices derived from bulbs and roots are garlic and ginger. Garlic, Allium sativum, which is a bulb made up of many cloves and closely related to the onion, originated in Central Asia and is one of the oldest spices. Ginger comes from the fleshy, aromatic, bulb-like rhizomes (underground stems) of the perennial Zingiber officinale. The rhizomes are sold commercially as root ginger or dried and ground into ginger powder. The essential oil is used to make ginger-flavoured beverages, sauces, and chutneys.