Bosnia and Herzegovina

I

Introduction

Bosnia and Herzegovina (in Bosnian, Bosna i Herzegovina), republic in south-eastern Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula, bounded on the north and west by Croatia, and on the east and south by Serbia and Montenegro. Formerly a constituent republic of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared its independence in March 1992. Civil war then broke out in the country as Bosnia and Herzegovina became involved in the Bosnian-Croatian-Serbian War. Bosnia and Herzegovina (often referred to simply as Bosnia) has a territory of about 51,129 sq km (30,677 sq mi). After the 1995 peace accord, however, the country was formally split into a Muslim-Croat federation controlling 51 per cent of its territory, and a Bosnian-Serb statelet with 49 per cent. Sarajevo is the republic’s capital and largest city.

II

Land and Resources

Mountains traverse much of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s territory; in particular, extensions of the Dinaric Alps, which form the republic’s western border with Croatia, traverse the northern part of the republic. Much of the republic also lies within the Karst, a barren limestone plateau broken by depressions and ridges. Bosnia, in the northern part of the republic, is heavily forested, while Herzegovina, in the south, has flatter regions of fertile soil that are primarily used as farmland. The republic also has about 20 km (12 mi) of coastline along the Adriatic Sea. Principal rivers include the Sava, which flows along the northern frontier, and its tributaries, the Una, Drina, and Vrbas.

Most of the republic is characterized by hot summers and cold winters, although short, cool summers and long, severe winters are common at higher elevations. The average temperature in January is -1° C (30° F), and in July is 20° C (68° F). Temperatures along the republic’s short coastline are warmer, and winters there are rainy.

Bosnia and Herzegovina is rich in natural resources, including large tracts of arable land, extensive stands of timber, and valuable deposits of such minerals as salt, manganese, silver, lead, copper, iron ore, chromium, and coal. Among the wildlife found in Bosnia and Herzegovina are the hare, lynx, weasel, otter, deer, fox, wildcat, wolf, grey bear, roe, and mouflon (wild sheep). The lynx, weasel, and otter have special status as endangered species.

Air pollution from metallurgical plants, water shortages, and poor or failing sanitation services are a few of the problems facing the country, but the destruction of its infrastructure because of the civil war is the most pressing current issue. Most activity since the war’s end has been concentrated on restoring basic needs and services, rather than addressing environmental problems directly. However, despite their overriding concern with rebuilding a war-torn infrastructure, leaders in Bosnia and Herzegovina have not lost sight of environmental issues—the country was an observer at the World Conservation Congress in Montreal in 1996.

III

Population

Before the war in 1991, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a total population of 4,124,000. The population at present is 4,552,198 (2007 estimate), which gives a population density of 89 per sq km (231 per sq mi). Muslims, primarily of the Sunni sect, constituted the largest ethnic group with about 44 per cent of the total population. The Muslims are descendants of Turks and Slavs who converted to Islam when the region was controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Serbs constituted the second-largest ethnic group before the war with approximately 31 per cent of the population, and Croats made up 17 per cent of the population. The official languages are known as Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. Although they have different dialects, these languages are one and the same, differing only in name and in the alphabet they are written in: Bosnians and Croats use the Roman alphabet while Serbs use the Cyrillic alphabet. The language situation is very politically sensitive, and serves to highlight and reinforce the political and cultural divisions within the country. Vlax Romani, an Indo-Iranian language, is also spoken by a number of citizens. The primary religions are Islam, the major religion of ethnic Muslims; Serbian Orthodoxy, practised by Serbs; and Roman Catholicism, practised by Croats.

Nearly two thirds of the republic’s population lived in rural areas before the war. Many of the republic’s urban-dwellers lived in the three largest cities: Sarajevo (population, 1991, 415,631; 2003 estimate, 401,696), Zenica, (1991, 145,577), and Banja Luka (1991, 142,644). The Bosnian Serbs are concentrated in the Bosanka Krajina region in north-western Bosnia, which includes Banja Luka. Before the war in 1991, this region included about 625,000 Serbs and about 550,000 Muslims and Croats. In 1994 about 875,000 Serbs lived in the region and only about 50,000 Muslims and Croats remained; most of the remaining Muslims and Croats were pushed out of the region during the summer of 1994.

All children between the ages of 7 and 15 are required by law to attend school, which is free. The war, however, has seriously disrupted educational provision in many areas of the country. Before the war, most children followed this elementary education with secondary schooling at a vocational school, gymnasium, or other school. More than 85 per cent of the population over the age of nine could read and write in the early 1990s. The republic also has six universities for students seeking a higher degree: the University of Banja Luka (1975), the University of Bihać (1997), the University of Mostar (1977), the University Džemal Bijedić of Mostar (1976), the University of Sarajevo (1949), and the University of Tuzla (1976).

IV

Economy

Bosnia and Herzegovina is one of the poorest of the constituent republics of the former Yugoslavia; only the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia is poorer. Following independence, Bosnia and Herzegovina’s economy remained largely based on agriculture, with tobacco and fruit as the major products. The war, however, has devastated much of the country’s fertile farmland and kept farmers from producing crops. Much of the republic’s industry is located in regions occupied by Serbs, and it was estimated that 80 per cent of the industrial plants were destroyed.

In 1993 the economy was at a near standstill, with most people subsisting on foreign relief aid; inflation and unemployment continued to spiral upwards. The economy’s deterioration was further compounded by economic blockades by both Serbia and Croatia. However, an agreement forged in March 1994 with Croatia ended the blockade on the western coast and helped bolster the Bosnian economy somewhat. The country’s gross national product (GNP), which totalled US$10,700 million in 1990, or US$2,454 per capita, is currently operating at as low as 10 to 20 per cent of pre-war levels. In August 1993 industrial production stood at just 4.8 per cent of the 1992 level. Industries still in operation at that time included textiles, food processing, and military arms. By 2004 the value of exports had risen to US$1,615 million, but imports totalled US$4,933 million.

The new dinar was the standard unit of exchange in Bosnia and Herzegovina when the republic was part of Yugoslavia. In the early years of Bosnian independence, various currencies circulated: the Croatian kuna was in use in Croat-held areas, the new dinar was the standard in Serb regions, and a variety of foreign currencies were used in Muslim-dominated areas. In 1998 the Bosnian government introduced its own currency, the convertible marka of 100 pfennigs (1.50 markas equalled US$1; early 2007).

Important newspapers in Bosnia and Herzegovina include the weekly paper Oslobodjenje and the Islamic-orientated weekly Ljiljan. Other papers include the Dnevni Avaz and Hrvataska Rijec. Broadcasting in the country is run by Independent Radio and Television “Studio 99” based in Sarajevo.