Freud, Sigmund

With his exposition of such new and radical ideas, it is easy to see why Freud came into conflict so readily with the society and establishment of his time. In the early years he came to rely on the support of friends such as Breur and later Karl Abraham and Ernst Jones. What is perhaps more remarkable is how debate over his work has continued to the present day. Freud’s contention that his theory represented a science has been firmly disputed by the philosopher Karl Popper. The psychologist Hans Eysenck dismisses psychoanalysis on the basis that there is no experimental evidence to substantiate it as a scientific discipline.

Freud’s contributions extended beyond psychoanalysis into the psychology of religion, mythology, art, and literature. Perhaps it was in the nature of his obsessional personality that he would wish to generalize his theory of psychoanalysis to all avenues of life. In doing so he attracted criticism and scepticism.

Increasing recognition of the psychoanalytic movement made possible the formation in 1910 of a worldwide organization called the International Psychoanalytic Association. As the movement spread, gaining new adherents throughout Europe and the United States, Freud was troubled by the dissension that arose among members of his original circle. Most disturbing were the defections from the group of Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, each of whom developed a different theoretical basis for disagreement with Freud’s emphasis on the sexual origin of neurosis. Freud met these setbacks by developing further his basic concepts and by elaborating his own views in many publications and lectures.

After the onset of World War I Freud devoted little time to clinical observation and concentrated on the application of his theories to the interpretation of religion, mythology, art, and literature. In 1923 he was stricken with cancer of the jaw, which necessitated constant, painful treatment in addition to many surgical operations. Despite his physical suffering he continued his literary activity for the next 16 years, writing mostly on cultural and philosophical problems.

His contributions included The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1902), Jokes and Their Relationship to the Unconscious (1905), Three Essays on Sexuality (1905), Totem and Taboo (1913), New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1933), in which he added further revisions to his theory, The Ego and the Id (1923), and Moses and Monotheism (1939).

Once again threatened with religious persecution, renewed as a result of the German annexation of Austria in 1938, Freud escaped with his family to England. He died in London on September 23, 1939.

Freud’s ideas have stood the test of time. They are revisited by other schools of psychology and neuroscience as these various disciplines attempt to refine our still uncertain understanding of human mental processes. Despite their opposition, Adler and Jung and other successors further studied and modified many of his concepts. These concepts are fundamental to so many of the variants of psychoanalysis now in existence, and have evolved with it.