International Trade

I

Introduction

International Trade, the exchange of goods and services between nations. “Goods” can be defined as finished products, as intermediate goods used in producing other goods, or as raw materials such as minerals, agricultural products, and other such commodities. International trade commerce enables a nation to specialize in those goods it can produce most cheaply and efficiently, and sell those that are surplus to its requirements. Trade also enables a country to consume more than it would be able to produce if it depended only on its own resources. Finally, trade encourages economic development by increasing the size of the market to which products can be sold. Trade has always been the major force behind the economic relations among nations; it is a measure of national strength.

II

Emergence of Modern International Trade

Although international trade was an important part of ancient economies, it acquired new significance after about 1500; with the establishment of empires and colonies by European countries, trade became an arm of governmental policy. The wealth of a country was measured in terms of the goods it possessed, particularly gold and precious metals. The objective of an empire was to acquire as much wealth as possible in return for as little expense as possible. This form of international trade, called mercantilism, was commonplace in the 16th and 17th centuries.

International trade began to assume its present form with the establishment of nation states in the 17th and 18th centuries. Heads of state discovered that by promoting foreign trade they could mutually increase the wealth, and thus the power, of their nations. During this period new theories of economics, in particular of international trade, also emerged.

III

Advantages of Trade

In 1776 the Scottish economist Adam Smith, in The Wealth of Nations, proposed that specialization in production leads to increased output. Smith believed that in order to meet a constantly growing demand for goods, a country’s scarce resources must be allocated efficiently. According to Smith’s theory, a country that trades internationally should specialize in producing only those goods in which it has an absolute advantage, that is, those goods it can produce more cheaply than can its trading partners. The country can then export a portion of those goods and, in turn, import goods that its trading partners produce more cheaply. Smith’s work is the foundation of the classical school of economic thought.

Half a century later, the English economist David Ricardo modified this theory of international trade. Ricardo’s theory, which is still accepted by most modern economists, stresses the principle of comparative advantage. Following this principle, a country can still gain from trading certain goods even though its trading partners can produce those goods more cheaply. The comparative advantage comes if the mathematics of production costs and price received work out so that each trading partner has a product that will bring a better price in another country than it will at home. If each country specializes in producing the goods in which it has a comparative advantage, more goods are produced, and the wealth of both the buying and the selling nations increases.

Besides this fundamental advantage, further economic benefits result when countries trade with one another. International trade leads to more efficient and increased world production, thus allowing countries (and individuals) to consume a larger and more diverse bundle of goods. A nation possessing limited natural resources is able to produce and consume more than it otherwise could. As noted earlier, the establishment of international trade expands the number of potential markets in which a country can sell its goods. The increased international demand for goods translates into greater production and more extensive use of raw materials and labour, which in turn leads to growth in domestic employment. Competition from international trade can also force domestic firms to become more efficient through modernization and innovation.

Within each economy, the importance of international trade varies. Some nations export chiefly to expand their domestic market or to aid economically depressed sectors within the home economy. Other nations depend on trade for a large part of their national income and to supply goods for domestic consumption. International trade is also viewed as an important means to promote growth within a nation’s economy; developing countries and international organizations have increasingly emphasized such trade.

IV

Government Restrictions

Because international trade is such an integral part of a nation’s economy, governmental restrictions are sometimes introduced to protect what are regarded as national interests. Government action may occur in response to the trade policies of other countries, or it may be taken in order to protect specific industries. All nations seek to achieve and maintain a favourable balance of trade—that is, to export more than they import, or at least to keep the surplus of imports over exports to a minimum.

In a money economy, goods are not merely bartered for other goods; rather, products are bought and sold in the international market with national currencies. In an effort to improve its balance of payments (that is, to increase reserves of its own currency and reduce the amount held by foreigners), a country may attempt to limit imports by controlling the amount of currency that leaves the country.