Augustus (emperor)

I

Introduction

Augustus (emperor) (63 bc- ad 14), first emperor of Rome (27 bc-ad 14), who restored unity and orderly government to the realm after nearly a century of civil wars. He presided over an era of peace, prosperity, and cultural achievement known as the Augustan Age.

Originally named Gaius Octavius, Augustus was born in Rome on September 23, 63 bc; he was the great nephew of Julius Caesar, whom he succeeded as ruler of the Roman state. Caesar was fond of the youth and had him raised to the College of Pontifices—a major Roman priesthood—at the age of 16. When Caesar was assassinated in 44 bc, Octavius was in Illyria, where he was serving in the army; on his return to Italy, he learned that he was Caesar's adopted heir. He subsequently took the name Gaius Julius Caesar, to which historians have added Octavianus; in English, the name is usually shortened to Octavian.

II

The Second Triumvirate

Caesar's assassination plunged Rome into turmoil. Octavian, determined to avenge his adoptive father and secure his position, vied with Mark Antony, Caesar's ambitious colleague, for power and honour. After some political and military skirmishes, during which Antony was driven across the Alps while Octavian was made senator and then consul, Octavian recognized the necessity of making peace with his rival. In late 43 bc, the two together with Antony's ally, the general Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, met and formed the Second Triumvirate to rule the Roman provinces. The alliance was sealed by a wide-ranging proscription, in which their opponents including 300 senators and 200 knights were slain. Among those killed was the ageing orator Cicero.

Octavian and Antony next took the field against the leaders of Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, both of whom committed suicide in 42 bc, after their defeat at Philippi in Macedonia, Greece. By 40 bc the triumvirs had divided control of the Roman world amongst themselves. Octavian ruled most of the western provinces, Antony the eastern ones, and Lepidus Africa. Although Antony and Octavian clashed over control of Italy, they settled their differences, and in 37 bc Octavian gave Antony his sister, Octavia, in marriage. In 36 bc, Sextus Pompeius, son of Pompey the Great and the last major opponent of the triumvirs, was eliminated. Octavian then forced Lepidus from power, while Antony was in the east fighting the Parthians.

The triumvirate was finally dissolved when Antony sent Octavia back to Rome, and soon after married Cleopatra, whom Caesar had installed as Queen of Egypt. By recognizing Caesarion, her son by Caesar, as her co-ruler, Anthony threatened Octavian's position as Caesar's only successor, and war was inevitable. Octavian defeated the joint forces of Antony and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium in 31 bc; the following year Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide. Caesarion was murdered. In 29 bc Octavian returned to Rome in triumph as the sole ruler of the Roman world.

III

The First Citizen

In 27 bc the Roman Senate gave Octavian the title Augustus (“consecrated”, or “holy”), which later became synonymous with “emperor”, and his reign has often been considered a dyarchy because of the Senate's participation in it. The Senate bestowed on him a host of other titles and powers that had been held by many different officials in the Republic. In 36 bc he was granted the inviolability of a plebeian tribune, and in 30 bc he received the powers of a tribune, thus giving him the veto and control over assemblies. The Senate also granted him ultimate authority in the provinces; this, together with the consulship of Rome and Italy, which he held 13 times during his reign, conferred on him supreme authority throughout the empire. After the death of Lepidus he also became Pontifex Maximus (“chief priest”) with control over religion. Despite his pre-eminence as reflected in the titles princeps, or first citizen, and imperator (from which “emperor” is derived), Augustus was careful not to take on the trappings of monarchy. In fact, he made much of the claim that he was restoring the Roman Republic.

A patron of the arts, Augustus was a friend of the poets Ovid, Horace, and Virgil, as well as the historian Livy. His love of architectural splendour was encapsulated in his boast that he “had found Rome brick and left it marble”. As a strict adherent of Roman virtues in times of growing permissiveness, he tried to regulate public morals by passing sumptuary and marriage laws. In the economic sphere, he encouraged the development of agriculture in Italy.

Augustus married three times; his third wife was Livia Drusilla, who had two sons, Tiberius and Drusus Germanicus, by a previous marriage. Augustus also had a daughter, Julia, by a previous marriage. Drusus and Julia died, leaving his stepson and son-in-law, Tiberius, to succeed Augustus when he died at Nola, Italy, on August 19, ad 14.

IV

Evaluation

Both ancient and modern writers have varied in their assessments of Augustus. Some have condemned his ruthless quest for power, especially his part in the proscription at the time of the Triumvirate. Others, including the staunch Republican supporter Tacitus, have admitted his good points as a ruler. Modern scholars sometimes criticize his unscrupulous methods and authoritarian style of rule, but they usually recognize his achievements in establishing an efficient administration and a stable government, and in bringing security and prosperity to the Roman Empire.