Imperialism

I

Introduction

Imperialism, practice by which powerful nations or peoples seek to extend and maintain control or influence over weaker nations or peoples. Scholars frequently use the term more restrictively: some associate imperialism solely with the economic expansion of capitalist states; others reserve it for European expansion after 1870. Although imperialism is similar in meaning to colonialism, and the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they should be distinguished. Colonialism usually implies formal political control, involving territorial annexation and loss of sovereignty. Imperialism refers, more broadly, to control or influence that is exercised either formally or informally, directly or indirectly, politically or economically.

II

History

Imperialism dates from antiquity, and throughout history it has taken many forms. In any given historical period, certain forms tend to be more prevalent than others. In the ancient world imperialism manifested itself in a series of great empires that arose when one people, usually representing a particular civilization and religion, attempted to dominate all others by creating a unified system of control. The empire of Alexander the Great and the Roman Empire are salient examples.

Early modern European imperialism (1400-1750), by contrast, generally took the form of overseas colonial expansion. Rather than one state attempting to unify the world, in this period many competing states established political control over territories in South and South East Asia and in the New World. Imperial systems were organized according to the doctrine of mercantilism: each imperial state attempted to control the trade of its colonies, in order to monopolize the benefits of that trade.

In the mid-19th century yet another variant of imperialism appeared, the imperialism of free trade. The practice endured in this period even though mercantilism and the pace of formal empire building declined significantly. European, especially British, power and influence were extended informally, mainly through diplomatic and economic means, rather than formally, through direct colonial rule. The imperialism of free trade, however, was short-lived: by the end of the 19th century European powers were once again practising imperialism in the form of overseas territorial annexation, expanding into Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.

Since the end of World War II, when most of the formal empires were dissolved, what might be called modern economic imperialism has come to predominate. Control is exercised informally and less overtly. The United States, for instance, exerts considerable influence over certain developing nations, as a result of its national economic power and its dominance of certain international financial organizations, such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Similarly, European powers have continued to affect significantly the politics and the economics of their former colonies, and they have consequently been accused of neocolonialism—the exercise of effective sovereignty without the formality of colonial rule.

III

Explanations of Imperialism

Historically, states have been motivated to pursue imperialism for a variety of reasons, which may be classified broadly as economic, political, and ideological. Theories of imperialism break down similarly, according to which motive or motives are viewed as primary.

A

The Economic Motive

Economic explanations of imperialism are the most common. Proponents of this view hold that states are motivated to dominate others by the need to expand their economies, to acquire raw materials and additional sources of labour, or to find outlets for surplus capital and markets for surplus goods. The most prominent economic theories, linking imperialism with capitalism, are derived from those of Karl Marx. Lenin, for example, explained the European expansion of the late 19th century as the inevitable outcome of the need for the European capitalist economies to export their surplus capital. Similarly, contemporary Marxists have explained the post-war expansion of the United States into the Third World in terms of economic imperatives.