Portugal

C

The Habsburg and Braganza Dynasties

When Henry died, seven claimants disputed the succession to the throne. The most powerful was Philip II, King of Spain, who in 1580 became Philip I of Portugal. The annexation of Portugal to the Spanish Habsburg monarchy subjected it to the heavy expenses of Spanish wars in a period known as the Sixty Years’ Captivity. After 1600 Portuguese domination of trade with the East Indies was lost to the Dutch and the English. Under Philip I, Portugal enjoyed considerable autonomy, but his successors, Philip II (Philip III of Spain) and Philip III (Philip IV of Spain), treated it as a Spanish province, provoking widespread discontent. After unsuccessful revolts in 1634 and 1637, Portuguese conspirators with the support of France won independence for their kingdom in 1640. John, Duke of Braganza, was elected John IV, first king of the House of Braganza, which ruled Portugal as long as the monarchy endured.

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1

John IV and His Successors

King John expelled the Dutch from Brazil, which they had occupied in 1630, and renewed the traditional tie with England. Although further weakened by conflicts with Spain in the second half of the 17th century, Portugal recovered a measure of prosperity in the 18th century, after gold and diamonds were discovered in Brazil. Between 1683 and 1750, during the reigns of Pedro II and John V, British merchants came to dominate Portuguese trade; the monarchy became more despotic and the Cortes fell into disuse.

During the reign of Joseph Emanuel (1750-1777), the kingdom was controlled by the Chief-Minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello, Marquês de Pombal, considered one of the greatest statesmen in modern Portuguese history. Although a ruthless dictator, he worked to weaken the power of the privileged nobility and the Church, encouraged industry and education, and ended the foreign monopoly of trade. Pombal was dismissed, however, at the accession of Joseph Emanuel’s daughter Maria I in 1777. During the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars, Portugal sided with Great Britain against France.

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2

The Napoleonic Wars

In 1807, when the armies of Napoleon threatened Portugal, the royal family withdrew to Brazil and made Rio de Janeiro the seat of government. A French army occupied Portugal but was defeated in 1808 by a British army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, later 1st Duke of Wellington. By the Convention of Sintra (August 30, 1808), the French left the country, but they re-invaded a year later. Wellington again checked the French advance, and by 1811 Portugal was free of French influence. The Portuguese royal family chose, however, to remain in Brazil, which in 1815 was made a separate kingdom. In 1816 John VI succeeded to the two thrones, ruling Portugal through a council of regency.

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3

The Constitutional Monarchy

In 1820 the Portuguese army headed a revolution designed to bring about a constitutional government. King John, who agreed to return to Portugal as constitutional monarch, made his son, Dom Pedro, regent of Brazil. Brazil proclaimed itself independent in 1822, and Pedro was made constitutional emperor Pedro I of that country. In Portugal, meanwhile, Pedro’s brother, Dom Miguel, appealed to the supporters of absolute monarchy to overthrow the constitutionalists, and an insurrection led by the prince almost succeeded on April 30, 1824. King John managed to remain in power, however, and Miguel went into exile in Vienna.

In 1826 Pedro I of Brazil succeeded to the throne of Portugal as Pedro IV. He put into effect a constitutional charter, providing for a parliamentary regime based on authorization of the monarchy rather than on popular will. He then abdicated in favour of his daughter, Maria II, called Maria da Gloria, a 7-year-old child. Miguel returned from Vienna in 1828 and, ruling as regent for Maria II, seized the throne. A period of acute civil strife followed. With the help of England, France, and Spain, Maria was restored to the throne in 1834.

Political conflict characterized her reign as the Liberals, who supported the 1822 constitution, opposed the Chartists, who supported the 1826 charter. Under her successors—Pedro V, who reigned from 1853 to 1861, and Louis, who reigned from 1861 to 1889—political strife became less pronounced.

D

The Republic

Republican and radical movements grew during the reign of Carlos I, and the appointment of João Franco, an anti-republican dictator, as Prime Minister in 1906 served to increase their strength. In 1908 Carlos and his eldest son were assassinated in Lisbon. The second son of Carlos ascended the throne as Manuel II, and although he restored constitutional government, his corruption equalled that of his father. In October 1910 the army and navy led a revolution that deposed Manuel and established a republic. A liberal constitution was put into effect in 1911, and one of its provisions separated Church from State. Manuel José de Arriaga was elected the first president of the Portuguese republic.

For the next 15 years Portugal was shaken by political chaos. Ministry succeeded ministry, with an average duration of four months in office. Early in 1916 during World War I, Portugal, honouring its alliance with Britain, seized German ships in the harbour of Lisbon. On March 9 Germany declared war. Portuguese troops fought in France and in Africa. Internal disorder and political turbulence, however, continued, and in 1919 a Royalist uprising added to the confusion.

In May 1926 an army coup deposed the 40th ministry since the proclamation of the republic. Within a few days of their success the military leaders selected General António de Fragoso Carmona to head the new government. In 1928 Carmona was elected president in an election in which he was the sole candidate. In the same year he appointed António de Oliveira Salazar, a professor of economics at the University of Coimbra, as Minister of Finance. Salazar was given extraordinary powers in order to put Portuguese finances on a sound basis.