India

G

1

Schools, Universities, and Colleges

In 1998–1999, 135 million pupils were enrolled in primary schools and 51 million in secondary schools.

India had 164 universities, 11 institutions of national importance, 38 institutions with university status, and more than 8,600 technical, arts, and science colleges in the mid-1990s. The total enrolment in universities and colleges in 1996 was 10.6 million students. Large institutions included Dr Bhim Rao Ambedkar University (formerly Agra University, founded 1927), the University of Bihar (1952), the University of Mumbai (1857), the University of Calcutta (1857), the University of Delhi (1922), Gauhati University (1948), Gujarat University (1950; in Ahmadabad), the University of Kerala (1937; in Thiruvananthapuram), the University of Madras (1857), the University of Mysore (1916), the University of Pune (1949), and the University of Rajasthan (1947; in Jaipur). Outstanding centres of study and research include the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore and the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in Mumbai.

H

Culture

India is a secular country that has traditionally absorbed and given birth to a variety of religions and religious sects. The majority of present-day Indians are Hindu, however, and this is reflected in many aspects of the shared culture across the country. Hinduism itself has, over centuries, absorbed and evolved a number of different philosophies and approaches, from the philosophical Advaita of Shankara to the devotion of the Bhakti movement.

The coexistence of significant minority faiths with the majority faith of Hinduism has by no means always been peaceful; Hindu-Muslim and Hindu-Sikh tensions (often fanned by motives other than religious ones) have, in the past, resulted in many deaths. The Ramajanmabhoomi movement, whose demands to build a Hindu temple on what they claim to be the birthplace of Rama in Ayodhya resulted in the destruction by a mob of the Babri Masjid (a mosque which they declared to have been built after the destruction of a previous temple) in 1992, has clearly been able to generate considerable popular support.

Such developments pose a serious threat to the future of secularism in India. It could be argued that this recent so-called Hindu “fundamentalism” (a contradiction in terms, as Hinduism has no defined fundaments) is an effort to forge a singular national culture on religious lines from rich and diverse traditions. The inculcation of such ideas has been facilitated by the widespread access to television, latterly satellite television, and its powerful cultural messages. The same media have also spread another value-set which to some extent has served to dissipate the call of religion—that of a Western-style consumer society.

Many languages are spoken across India. Eighteen of the major ones are recognized in the constitution, but many other relatively minor ones are also spoken regionally. Sanskrit, the ancient language of the Hindu scriptures, is an Indo-European language related to Greek and Latin. It was the medium for the vast body of religious and secular writing (see Sanskrit Literature) that constitutes the core of classical Indian literature. Tamil is also a very ancient language, with a rich literature and, unlike Sanskrit, it is still thriving today. Tamil is a Dravidian language, with a completely different script to Sanskrit, and forms one of several Dravidian languages spoken in the south of India. Large bodies of literature also exist in all the other major languages of India, notably Hindi, Bengali, Urdu, Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam.

Early classical painting and sculpture was inspired by Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, all influenced by one another. The art of Madhura, Gandhara (with its blending of Hellenistic and Indian elements), the refinement of Gupta art, the frescoes at Ajanta, the rock-cut reliefs at Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) and the Nataraja at Chidambaram, all form part of the splendid heritage of early India. Perhaps the world’s first extant treatise on the theory of drama, music and dance, the Natya Shastra, by Bharata, written by about ad 300, formed the basis of a sophisticated tradition in the performing arts (see Indian Dance; Indian Theatre).

A relative decline in classical Hindu arts and culture followed the end of the reign of Harsha in the 7th century in northern India as new socio-political forms began to evolve, although the south, under kingdoms such as the Pallava, and later the Chola, was reaching its apex in art and architecture. In this period of uncertainty and change, a major dislocation in cultural development occurred in northern India, with the waves of conquerors from Central Asia in the 11th and 12th century, who brought with them a quite different faith, Islam. Some of the ancient centres of learning, such as the magnificent Buddhist university at Nalanda, were totally destroyed by Turks in the 11th century.

After several centuries of warfare, disruption, and repression under Turkish and Mongol rulers, by the mid-16th century, the Mughal dynasty founded by Babur, a descendant of the Mongol Tamerlane, had conquered all of northern India. Islam, with its linear Western cosmogony, and revulsion against any form of idol-worship, was fundamentally different from Hinduism and other eastern faiths, and some of the early conquerors, in particular, ransacked temples and shrines, such as the Jagannath temple in Puri, and showed scant respect for ancient learning. Others, however, became interested in Sanskrit, and key works, such as the mathematical treatise of Bhaskara, the Lilavati, were translated into Persian and became very popular during the Mughal period.

Under the great Mughal emperors such as Akbar, the country experienced a new period of flourishing of the arts, with fresh impetus arising from Persian influence culminating in a distinct style of art, music, and architecture in northern India. The Mughal period provided India with some of its most impressive architecture, best known through the world-renowned Taj Mahal in Agra. It also brought outstanding work in manuscript illustration, miniature painting, and the decorative arts, as well as the evolution of Hindustani music in the north. The south evolved its own style, known as Carnatic music. Both classical forms have produced composers and musicians of the highest calibre, including Tansen, Tyagaraja, and in recent years, Allauddin Khan, Ravi Shankar, M. S. Subbulakshmi, and many others. A strong, regional folk tradition of all the performing arts has continued throughout.

Under British rule, much of this creative cultural momentum became dissipated, but at the same time, a number of individuals such as William Carey and Max Müller, became interested in ancient and medieval Indian culture and, by their translations and commentaries, provided Western readers with access to key works. Some art forms, such as styles of classical Indian dance, however, declined through lack of patronage or fell into disrepute under Victorian values. A revival in aspects of Indian thought and culture accompanied the rising nationalist feeling, and the 20th century has seen efforts not only to revive dying arts such as Kathakali, but to reconstitute early forms. In dance, for example, Chandralekha has explored the early forms of Bharatanatyam, and the erotic style of Orissi, depicted in many ancient sculptures, has become well known.

See also Indian Art and Architecture; Indian Music.

H

1

Libraries and Museums

India has more than 60,000 libraries, including more than 1,000 specialized ones attached to various government departments. The National Library, in Kolkata, is one of three copyright libraries that receive copies of all books and magazines published in India. Outstanding among several hundred public libraries is that in Delhi.

India’s more than 350 museums include a number containing important historical and archaeological collections, such as the Government Museum and National Art Gallery, Chennai; the National Museum, New Delhi; Sarnath Museum, Vārānasi; and the Indian Museum, Kolkata. Vadodara, Chennai, Kozhikode (formerly Calicut), and New Delhi have museums containing outstanding collections of medieval and modern art.

IV

Economy

India has a mixed economy in which both the central and state governments pay a leading role—as regulators, planners, and through ownership of public enterprises. Large-scale government involvement in the economy began in the 1950s as a reflection of nationalism and of the socialism of the first post-independence government led by Jawaharlal Nehru—and with the aim of speeding up economic development and growth to meet the needs of India’s rapidly growing population. The first of India’s five-year economic plans was launched in 1951. During the decades that followed the state took over certain key sectors and invested heavily in others, while the private sector was subject to wide-ranging controls. Tariff, and other, barriers were erected to protect domestic industries, and various agrarian reform programmes were initiated.

The results were generally positive, especially when compared with many other developing countries. Economic growth, except during times of severe drought such as 1979 and 1987, was steady; it averaged 3.6 per cent a year in real terms (that is, after taking into account population growth) between 1965 and 1980, and more than 5 per cent a year during the 1980s. Inflation and the national debt were generally kept low. Agricultural output rose significantly and the spectre of mass famine was eliminated. The basis of a modern industrial state was laid. However, growth levels were still too low to have more than a marginal impact on the income of the majority of Indians. In 2004 India’s gross national product (GNP) was about US$673,205 million, giving an income per head of just US$820. In addition, more than 60 per cent of under-fives were malnourished, while access to clean water and sanitation was still available only to a minority of the population.

In 1991 P. V. Narasimha Rao became prime minister and instituted a significant change in economic policy. Many of the controls over the private sector have been abolished and the state monopoly in certain areas, such as air transport, was loosened. The economy generally was opened up by the reduction of tariff controls and by the encouragement of foreign investment. These changes were partly brought about by the need to sustain higher growth rates. However, the government also needed to cut public spending and to reduce inflation, debt repayments, and the balance of payments deficit—which had all risen sharply as a result of problems created by the Gulf War and by government borrowing in the late 1980s. In 1991 and 1992 real economic growth dropped to 1.1 per cent; by 1996 it was above 6.5 per cent.

Changes at national level have also been reflected at state level. The states have significant control over internal policy and interpret national policy in different ways. Some, like West Bengal, have far greater government control of the economy than average; others, like Maharashtra, have traditionally been more market-oriented. Since 1991, however, almost all the states have opened their doors to foreign investment, reduced controls over the private sector, and allowed some privatization of state companies. Some states have been more successful in this regard. Five major states, which together constitute one third of India’s population—Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu—have secured two thirds of private investment proposals since 1991 and 60 per cent of commercial bank credit. In contrast, seven states, which together constitute 55 per cent of the population, have secured only 30 per cent of private investment proposals during the same period. These are the states of Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. This disparity may lead to instability in the future. In 2006 some 4.45 million tourists visited India, and spent an estimated US$7,352 million.

A

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing

In terms of land uses, 54 per cent of India’s land is used for arable agriculture, 3 per cent for crops, and 4 per cent for pasture. About two thirds of India’s population depends on the land to make a living. Agriculture generates an estimated 18 per cent of gross domestic product (GDP). Most farms are very small—the average size of holdings nationally is 2.63 hectares (6.5 acres), but more than one third of holdings are considered too small for the subsistence needs of a farming family. In terms of area sown the leading crop is rice, the staple food of a large section of the Indian population. Wheat ranks next in importance to rice, and India is also among the leading producers in the world of sugar cane, tea, cotton, and jute. Annual production of these commodities in 2006 was sugar cane, 281 million tonnes; rice, 137 million tonnes; wheat, 69.3 million tonnes; cotton, 3.56 million tonnes; jute, 2 million tonnes; and tea, 892,730 tonnes. Other important crops are sorghum, millet, maize, barley, chickpeas, bananas, mangoes, rubber, coffee, linseed, peanuts, and various seeds and spices.

The raising of livestock, particularly horned cattle, buffalo, horses, and mules, is a central feature of the agricultural economy. In 2006 India had about 181 million cattle, substantially more than any other country in the world. These animals, like buffaloes, horses, and mules, are utilized primarily as beasts of burden. Although the vegetarianism associated with Hindu custom is followed by few, especially in north India, Hindus will not eat beef. Lack of pasture and water supplies means most Indian cattle are of poor quality. The country’s 98.8 million buffalo are largely raised in the delta regions. In the dry regions of Punjab and Rajasthan camels (0.63 million) are the principal beasts of burden. Sheep (62.8 million) and goats (125 million) are raised mainly for wool.

Although much farming is still by traditional methods, there has been a significant change in the technologies available since independence. The area under canal irrigation systems financed by the government has expanded enormously; there has been an even greater expansion in the area watered by well-based systems. By 2003 about 558,080 sq km (215,476 sq mi) was irrigated. The demand for chemical fertilizers and high-yielding seed varieties has increased markedly, particularly since the much-publicized “Green Revolution” of the 1960s and early 1970s—which particularly benefited richer farmers in wheat-growing areas like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab states.

The forestlands in India cover about 21 per cent of the total land area. Commercial forestry is not highly developed and is largely restricted to the northern highlands, Assam, and the regions bordering on the Himalaya. However, forests are used to provide fuelwood and charcoal, the main energy source for most Indians, as well as valuable fruits and nuts, fibres, oils, gums, and resins. The annual timber harvest was about 329 million cu m (11.6 billion cu ft) in 2006.

Although largely undeveloped commercially, fishing remains vital in certain regions, such as the Ganges delta in Bengal and along the south-western coast. In recent years the government has been encouraging deep-sea fishing by constructing processing plants and underwriting ocean-going fleets and vessels. In 2005 estimate the country’s annual catch totalled more than 6.32 million tonnes, of which about 2.99 million tonnes was the marine catch. Kerala, Tamil, Nadu, and Maharashtra are the main fishing states, accounting for about half of the national catch. Overfishing is becoming a problem in some areas.