Doll

I

Introduction

Doll, figure in the form of a miniature human being made as a child's plaything, or having religious significance.

II

Ancient Dolls

The earliest known dolls are those made of flat pieces of wood, painted with geometric designs and with “hair” made of strings of clay or wooden beads, found in Egyptian graves dating from 3000 to 2000 bc. The presence of such dolls in children's tombs suggests that they were cherished possessions. Dolls found in adult tombs, however, suggest that they had some significance as fertility symbols. Other Egyptian dolls were models of ushabti (servants) who would serve them in the afterworld. Dolls were also buried with children in ancient Greek and Roman times.

Most dolls found in child burials dating from ancient times are simple, rigid creations, made of common clay, rags, wood, or bone; more lifelike examples, joined at the shoulders, were made of ivory, wax, or terracotta (a baked reddish-brown clay) and some had removable garments. The more sophisticated and detailed the doll, the more likely it was to have been made for adult purposes, such as representing deities.

III

Early European Dolls

Because they were made of degradable materials such as wood, linen, and wool very few medieval dolls have survived, but early writings reveal something of their history. Dolls made of alabaster, the playthings of rich children, had been made popular since Roman times; poor children played with dolls made of wood, straw, or rags. In early Christian times, the Church suppressed the pagan practice of burying dolls with children, but was unsuccessful in preventing people from leaving clay dolls with clasped hands as votive offerings at the shrines of saints.

During the 12th century jointed wooden or metal figures controlled by strings began to be made, and puppet shows became widespread (see Puppets and Marionettes). Edible dolls were also very popular throughout Europe: bread dolls, eaten on saints' days, were believed to transmit holiness, while gingerbread dolls decorated with gilt were simply edible playthings. In the 13th century wooden dolls became more elaborate, with skilful painting and fine costumes.

However, simple earthenware and clay dolls continued to be made. The Venetian practice of making dolls from wax, wood and composition (a mixture of various pastes) spread to other countries in the 14th century and continued for 500 years. At this time, too, mannequin dolls—designed to show the latest fashions—and glove puppets also became popular.

The first dolls known to have been commercially produced as children's playthings were made in Germany in the early 15th century. Factories at Nuremberg, Ausburg, and Sonneberg made crude dolls of wood, clay, rags, and wax, dressed to represent German women of the time. Later that century, manufactures in England, France, Holland, and Italy also began to produce dolls dressed in clothes typical of their respective countries. The more ornately costumed “lady” or “fashion” dolls were often presented by rulers and courtiers as gifts. Some of the most beautiful examples, dressed in silk and with real hair, were made in France during the 16th century. Other developments in doll manufacture at this time included articulated wooden figures; stump dolls carved from solid wood, like skittles; male dolls, particularly knights in armour; and cabinet dolls made of wax, for collections.

The 17th century saw several improvements in doll manufacture. The heads were made of glazed stoneware, but this was superseded by tragacanth (a gum derived from an Asian plant) and alabaster (a soft gypsum resembling marble). In 1636 a doll with glass eyes that moved was made in Holland, and in 1675 another firm's dolls wore wigs of human hair. Some of the most famous makers at this time were the Germans Mathias Schutz, who worked at court, and Daniel Neuberger, while in England Mrs Goldsmith was renowned for making life-size wax models. The Sicilians were also noted for making elaborately costumed dancing dolls, which were used in puppet shows. Until the 18th century, however, Germany remained the leading producer of dolls and toys. Early in that century, soft leather, which had been especially treated to give it the feel of human skin, was used to cover dolls' torsos and limbs.

Up until the early 18th century, virtually all dolls were designed as adults. In 1710, however, one manufacturer introduced a wax “baby” doll with movable eyes and a crying voice. In 1737 walking dolls were made in Paris. Dolls had begun to look, feel, and move more like humans, but the popularity of high-fashion “lady” dolls, typically manufactured in Paris, remained paramount. Such dolls were often used to illustrate trends in fashion and were sent from one country to another to demonstrate the latest styles in clothing.

IV

Non-European Dolls

While dolls have largely been used as playthings in Europe, their religious or magical significance often predominates in other cultures. If they are given to children, it is often to teach them about the cultural traditions and folklore of their country. This is perhaps why the methods and materials used in non-European doll-making have changed very little over the centuries, and why dating dolls from these cultures can be difficult. In parts of Africa, for example, dolls have long been made of gourds and sticks, and even today may be carried on a woman's back to encourage fertility. Simple dolls for children were made from corn cobs, and still are in both Africa and Mexico. In North America the Hopi Indians continue the tradition of making dolls from dry cottonwood root decorated with feathers and beads, and use them in ritual dances to bring about such things as a successful harvest. The Inuit (Eskimo) people also use local material for making dolls, including walrus tusks, reindeer horn, bone, and driftwood. Their dolls were unclothed until the 19th century, when garments of animal skin were added

The earliest Japanese dolls, the Somin-Shorai, are made of wood and were intended to ward off evil spirits. From the 8th century ad healing dolls made of paper or straw were introduced; these were placed in the bed of a sick child and then thrown into the sea, the belief being that the sickness had transferred itself to the doll. Later Japanese dolls were made of cardboard, rag, bamboo, and various substances mixed with sawdust. The advent of papier-mâché—long before it appeared in Europe—led to more sophisticated creations, particularly the court dolls with beautifully painted faces and elaborate costumes. Japanese dolls became very popular in Europe in the late 19th century. Two annual doll festivals, one in March for girls and another in May for boys, is an ancient Japanese custom. At the girls' festival, dolls representing the emperor and empress and their court are displayed, and refreshments offered to both the dolls and the human guests. Dolls dressed as warriors and legendary figures take part in the boys' festival. Dolls are also used in the Japanese bunraku theatre.

In China, dolls were originally made as idols or fetishes, so that they were considered unsuitable for children. The earliest examples were made from plaited straw, but grave figures dating from the 6th century bc were made from ceramics and wood. Paper and cardboard were later used to make tilting toys for children, which were finely weighted to return to an upright position.

The simplest Indian dolls are very similar to the earliest Egyptian dolls, being made of flat rectangles of wood, but they also incorporate other local materials, including pith, clay, papier-mâché, cow dung, bronze, rag, and vegetable fibres. It was traditional to give elaborately dressed dolls to child brides.