Geography

I

Introduction

Geography, from the Greek geographia, “earth description”, science that, broadly defined, deals with the structures and processes of the Earth’s physical and human environments and the interactions between the two, particularly in their spatial contexts. Put even more broadly, geographers seek to understand the way our world works and why it appears as it does. This involves explaining the processes operating below, on, and above the Earth’s surface and the ways in which these processes have created the landscapes around us and continue to change them; as well as the ways in which human beings have been affected by and in turn have modified the natural environment, and how and why human structures and activities have developed in different ways in particular places.

The universal nature of geography means, in fact, that, like history, it is very hard to define satisfactorily. Geographers themselves have struggled, and failed, over the years to come up with a single definition—a problem that has been compounded by the fact that what has been studied as geography has changed substantially over the past 2,000 years (see History of Geography below). Notwithstanding this, however, there is one thing that most, if not all, definitions agree upon, that geography is the discipline that is particularly concerned with spatial relationships.

II

Branches of Geography

Modern geography has been divided conventionally into two main traditions: systematic and regional geography. Systematic geography is concerned with the formulation of general laws and principles and is divided into two branches: physical geography and human geography. Each of these branches is subdivided into several specialist fields. Regional geography is concerned with the combinations of physical and human-made features that characterize different regions on the Earth’s surface and that distinguish one region from another. During the first half of the 20th century the regional approach dominated geographical research. However, during the 1940s it began to fall out of favour and today the systematic branches are predominant.

The eclipse of regional geography during the past 50 years has not been universal, however. In France and Germany it has maintained a rather stronger position, in part because of the different approach to the region in these countries. In contrast to the Anglo-American tradition, where regional geography became characterized by (and ultimately came to be rejected because of) a preoccupation with the unique nature of regions and with description rather than analysis, in France and, particularly, Germany, regional studies have been more concerned with discovering the nomothetic (law-controlled) aspects of particular areas.

One geographical discipline that cuts across the traditional boundaries is that of cartography. Because of the spatial aspect of much geographical research, maps have been considered the most important of the geographer’s tools. Whatever their area of interest, all geographers are trained, to a greater or lesser extent, in the techniques of map-making. The advent of the use of the computer in cartography over the past 30 years has not only revolutionized the practical aspects of map-making, it has also enabled geographers to tackle completely new areas of research. Computers have allowed them both to analyse larger and more complex amounts of data and to transform the results of that analysis into new forms of maps. These can range from the three-dimensional representation of particular topographical features to the mapping of different kinds of perceptual space.

A

Systematic Geography

This section describes briefly the main branches of contemporary systematic geography and their respective subdisciplines. The methodologies they employ and their historical development are outlined in the sections that follow. More detailed discussion of these areas and of the current concerns and future trends within systematic geography can be found in the Physical Geography and Human Geography articles. The main subdisciplines of systematic geography also have their own articles.

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1

Physical Geography

The branch of systematic geography concerned with the physical environment, physical geography, encompasses a number of subject areas with close links to other environmental disciplines, notably geomorphology, climatology, biogeography, pedology, and hydrology. Oceanography is also sometimes classified within physical geography. Of these sub-disciplines probably the most important historically is geomorphology, which has played the leading role in the development of the theoretical underpinnings of physical geography. The evolution of the other subject areas has tended instead to reflect developments in their linked disciplines.

Geomorphology, which is linked to geology, is the study of the landforms on the Earth’s surface, their history, and the processes that mould them, notably weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, and the forces associated with plate tectonics. In recent years, in line with a general tendency within geography, several distinct specializations have emerged within geomorphology, such as anthropogeomorphology and applied geomorphology. The former is the study of the role of human beings as active geomorphological agents. Its development reflects our increasing ability to mould the environment—it is estimated, for example, that human activities now move more rock and soil in a year than do natural processes. The increasing understanding of the role of process and form in landform evolution and the development of successful predictive models has enabled the emergence of applied geomorphology, which allows physical geographers to advise on the probable impact of activities such as road construction or flood control schemes.

Climatology, the study of the long-term behaviour of the atmosphere in specific areas is closely linked to meteorology. It is concerned with explaining, generally in statistical terms, the causes of both present and past climates. In recent years technological advances in the measurement of climatic factors and the analysis of the resulting data have enabled the development of a number of specialisms within climatology. They include bioclimatology, the study of the relationship between living organisms and climate; applied climatology, in which climatic information is used to study environmental, social, and economic problems; and palaeoclimatology, the study of the history of the Earth’s climate, using both geological and historical records.

Biogeography, which is linked to ecology, is the study of the biosphere and of human effects on plants and animals. It encompasses such things as the changing distribution of plants and animals over the Earth (phytogeography and zoogeography) and the human impact on the ecology of the Quaternary period. Pedology involves the study of the formation, composition, and distribution of soils, as well as their classification. Hydrology is the study of the waters of the Earth, including their occurrence, distribution in space and time, and their relation to people and the natural environment. Oceanography is the study of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that maintain the structure and motion of the salt waters that cover three quarters of the Earth’s surface.