Welsh Literature

I

Introduction

Welsh Literature, literature written in the Welsh language. For information on literature written in English on Welsh themes or by Welsh authors, see Anglo-Welsh Literature.

II

The Earliest Poetry

Welsh had a wide geographical distribution in the period following the Roman occupation of Britain, and the earliest surviving poetry in the language belongs not to Wales itself, but to northern England and southern Scotland. This poetry is ascribed to the late 6th-century poets, Taliesin and Aneirin; and on this basis, Welsh is often claimed to be the oldest vernacular literature in Europe. Although the work of only two poets has survived from this early period, it is probable that there were many others—the early 9th-century chronicler Nennius, for instance, names another three: Talhaearn, Blwchfardd, and Cian. They are referred to as the “Cynfeirdd” (“The First Poets”) in Welsh, but they probably belonged to a tradition of bards whose roots can be traced to continental Europe. The work of Taliesin and Aneirin is preserved in 13th- and early 14th-century manuscripts, but the long period of oral—then manuscript—transmission means that expert scholarship is needed to ascertain the authenticity of these poems.

This is heroic poetry, taking as its subject matter the enmity between the Brythonic tribes of “the Old North” (as the area around the Solway and Clyde estuaries, and the eastern territory centred in present-day Edinburgh were called) and the invading Anglo-Saxons from the east. Eulogy and elegy were two sides of the same coin, and defeat was bitterly yet stoically recorded in classically controlled stanzas. Aneirin’s long poem, “Y Gododdin” (“The Gododdin”), is a series of elegies to the members of the small war-band from the Edinburgh region who died in the battle of Catraeth (usually identified as Catterick, in Yorkshire) around 600.

Although surviving poetry during the next few centuries is sparse, it is probable that the tradition of praise poetry continued in Wales itself, as attested by such anonymous poems as that in praise of Cadwallon ap Cadfan, the King of Gwynedd (early 7th century), the elegy on the death of Cynddylan, King of Powys (c. 660), “Edmyg Dinbych” in praise of Tenby, in Pembrokeshire (late 9th century), and the remarkably patriotic “Armes Prydain” (“The Prophecy of Britain”, c. 930), which foresees the defeat of the English by the Celts.

The most significant body of poetry from this period, however, is that based on legend, notably saga poetry associated with the names of Llywarch Hen and Heledd. This belongs to the 9th century, but deals anachronistically with characters from an earlier period. The heroic absolutism of Taliesin and Aneirin has now mutated into a much more complex heroism; there is more of a storyline, and the characterization is profounder. The use of the three-line englyn metre gives this poetry a more lyrical tone.

Other poems of note include those pertaining to Arthur, the mythological Taliesin (the historical poet became a legendary figure in a cycle of later poems), and the prophetic figure of Myrddin (Merlin). There is also a considerable body of work of anonymous nature, proverbial, and prophetic poetry, as well as the famous “Englynion y Beddau” (“Stanzas of the Graves”), roughly belonging to the 9th and 10th centuries.

III

The Poets of the Princes

The 12th and 13th centuries give the impression of being a much more prolific period, and it is true that the poets’ guild was better organized by this time, and that the three royal families of Wales (Gwynedd, Powys, and Deheubarth) provided generous patronage. The poets had from time immemorial been professionals, of course, and were highly regarded, not only as craftsmen or entertainers, but also for their spiritual and prophetic gifts, and as propagandists for their patrons’ interests. The Welsh law books attest to the high ranking of the poets in the princes’ courts. There seem to have been three ranks: pencerdd (the chief poet), bardd teulu (poet of the retinue), and cerddor or clerwr (itinerant poet and entertainer). There were probably bardic schools with a strict curriculum, and even though the bardic grammars attributed to Dafydd Ddu and Einion Offeiriad belong to the 14th century, they may reflect some of the principles underlying the bards’ professional training. The Eisteddfod (meaning a “sitting” or “session”) dates back to the early medieval period, and appears to have played a part in regulating and systematizing the poetic guilds.

The court poets are known in Welsh as “Gogynfeirdd” (“Fairly Early Poets”), and they develop the Taliesin tradition of eulogy and elegy. There are around 30 of them in all. The earliest was Meilyr Brydydd, who wrote the elegy of Gruffudd ap Cynan in 1137. The most prolific were Cynddylan Brydydd Mawr (Cynddylan “The Great Poet”—referring to his corporeal appearance as well as his poetic eminence) and Llywarch ap Llywelyn, the court poet of Llywelyn ap Iorwerth (Llewellyn the Great), also known as “Prydydd y Moch” (“The Poet of the Pigs”). Others include Hywel ab Owain Gwynedd, whose celebrated “Gorhoffedd” (“The Exultation”) boasts of his amorous exploits; Owain Cyfeiliog, a poet from Powys, whose “Hirlas Owain” (“The Long Grey Drinking-horn”) describes a celebratory feast at Owain’s court following a military conquest, and in which his drinking-horn is passed around the members of the retinue. This period comes to a dramatic and tragic end with the death of the last prince of Wales, Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, in 1282. The powerful raging poem written in response by Gruffudd ab yr Ynad Coch has often been described as the most moving elegy in the Welsh language.

The “Gogynfeirdd” wrote long poems in the awdl metres (varying combinations of several of the traditional 24 metres of Welsh poetry). Their work is highly stylized, their diction often archaic, and their syntax formalized and far removed from colloquial Welsh. The literal meaning is often obscure, and there is a dense use of metaphor, as if in a verbal mosaic. It is during this period that we see cynghanedd (harmony) becoming increasingly organized, although alliteration and internal rhyme had been loosely used in Welsh poetry since the 6th century.

IV

The Poets of the Gentry

The conquest of Wales by Edward I of England at the end of the 13th century seemed to relegate Welsh poetry into limbo, but in fact this hiatus provided a new opportunity: the bardic tradition eventually recovered from its crisis, and by the middle of the 14th century there was a definite renaissance. The role of the princes was ably taken over by the gentry, who assumed enhanced administrative responsibilities under the aegis of the English Crown. The patronage offered to the poets was of necessity less prestigious than that enjoyed by their predecessors, and it entailed poets serving more than one noble family, and making a practice of going from one noble family to the next.

This social fluidity seems to have helped to free poetry from some of its technical constraints as well. While the awdl form of the “Gogynfeirdd” continued to be used, it was superseded in popularity by a new and lighter form, the cywydd, based on a seven-syllable couplet, with a stressed and unstressed rhyme (or vice versa). The sonority of cynghanedd was retained, however, and its rules became even more organized. Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as the pioneer of this new metre, and he used it with flair and dexterity to deal almost exclusively with the subjects of nature and love (both courtly and erotic). Dafydd, whose corpus of about 150 poems belongs to the middle of the 14th century, was well versed in bardic techniques, but had independent means, and was therefore not constrained by the need to please a patron. In his poems he expresses a whole range of emotions, his imagination abounding with metaphors. He can meditate ruefully on the paradoxes of life, as well as relate a dramatic story with zest and humour. He invigorated Welsh poetry by absorbing continental influences and making them shape his own tunes.

Dafydd ap Gwilym was atypical, however, and most poets of the 14th to the 16th century opted for the traditional theme of praise, albeit mainly in the new cywydd metre. Their poetry is a rich archive for historical detail on their patrons’ genealogy, their connoisseurship of food and wine, and the architecture of their homes. Iolo Goch’s celebrated poem to Owain Glyndŵr at the end of the 14th century is a classic example, with its lavish descriptions of his patron’s court at Sycharth.

The tradition continued for at least another two centuries, and the eminent names among the many are Guto’r Glyn, Dafydd Nanmor, Lewys Glyn Cothi, Tudur Aled, and Wiliam Llŷn. It is sometimes portrayed as a selective tradition, formal and classical in its outlines, in harmony with the concept of a hierarchical and ordered universe and social order, as typified in the medieval Great Chain of Being. But examined more minutely, the tradition is much more varied, and the exuberance of Dafydd ap Gwilym is balanced by the danse macabre of Siôn Cent. There is more irony, satire, and humour than is often recognized.

A decline was setting in by the second half of the 16th century, and as the poets failed to adapt to the ideals of the Renaissance, and as the Welsh gentry became increasingly Anglicized after the Act of Union of Wales and England (1536), cracks began to appear in the tradition, and it gradually crumbled during the 17th century. Patronage ceased and the bardic order eventually came to an end.